St. Francis Xavier is considered one of the greatest Roman Catholic missionaries of modern times and was one of the first seven members of the Society of Jesus. In the span of only a few years he worked with poor fishermen in India (1542–45) and headhunters in the Moluccas (1545–48) and was impressed by the sophistication of the Japanese (1549–51), who had been encountered by Europeans only a few years earlier. It is estimated that he baptized some 30,000 converts before he died of fever off the coast of China in 1552 at the age of 46. Although he struggled with the languages of the peoples he proselytized, he strongly believed that missionaries must adapt to the customs and languages of the people they evangelize, and he was a major advocate for the education of native clergy—revolutionary ideas at the time. His work established Christianity in India, the Malay Archipelago, and Japan and paved the way for other missionary ventures to Asia.

José de Anchieta was a Portuguese Jesuit who joined the order in 1551. He arrived in Brazil in 1553 and was stationed at São Paulo, a new Jesuit settlement in the interior that he helped found. After converting more than a million indigenous people, Anchieta fought to protect them from the institution of slavery, which was emerging in the plantation economy of the Portuguese colony. He was also an acclaimed writer, dramatist, and scholar and staged several of his own religious plays at his outpost, many of which have been lost. He compiled the first grammar of the Indian language Tupí and penned many letters describing the native customs, folklore, and diseases as well as the Brazilian flora and fauna he encountered. Considered one of the founders of the national literature of Brazil, his most famous literary work was the Latin mystic poem De beata virgine dei matre Maria (“The Blessed Virgin Mary”). Anchieta also helped to found another one of Brazil’s largest cities, Rio de Janeiro, and was involved with the establishment of three of Brazil’s first colleges (at Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro).

Originally from Italy, Alessandro Valignano became a Jesuit priest in 1566 and was sent as a missionary to Japan. Seeking to accommodate the Japanese culture, he encouraged his priests to dress like Zen Buddhist monks and stressed the importance of their fluency in the language. He also arranged for the Jesuit mission to receive a portion of the highly profitable silk trade, which allowed the mission to be self-supporting and helped convert several powerful feudal lords. Valignano was highly esteemed among the Japanese and was formally received by two successive rulers of Japan. He was even permitted to train native priests, the importance of which he learned from St. Francis Xavier. In 1582 he sent four young Japanese Christian samurai to Rome in what was the first Japanese diplomatic mission to Europe. The foreign guests were lavishly entertained by the king of Spain, were received by the pope, and even had paintings done by Tintoretto. By the time of his death, there were an estimated 300,000 Christians and 116 Jesuits in the country. However, in the 17th century Christianity in Japan was met with heavy persecution, and thousands of Christians were martyred.

Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit missionary who introduced Christian teaching to the Chinese empire in the 16th century. Empowered by the example and teachings of St. Francis Xavier and Alessandro Valignano (who had mentored him in India), Ricci spent years adopting the language and culture of the country. This strategy eventually earned him an entrance to the interior of China, which was normally closed to foreigners. During his 30 years in the country, he was a pioneer in fostering a mutual comprehension between China and the West. Ricci famously produced a remarkable map of the world, the “Great Map of Ten Thousand Countries,” which showed China’s geographical relation to the rest of the world. Through his teaching of mathematics, he gained access to Confucian scholars, who encouraged him to wear scholars’ robes, and he later taught astronomy and geography in Nanchang. As his academic renown and amiable reputation spread, he was eventually permitted to travel to Beijing, where he wrote several books in Chinese. One of Ricci’s most influential converts was Li Zhizao, a Chinese mathematician, astronomer, and geographer whose translations of European scientific books greatly furthered the spread of Western science in China.

An early missionary to South America, St. Peter Claver was a Spanish Jesuit known as the “apostle of the Negroes.” Appalled by the transatlantic slave trade in Colombia in the early 1600s, he dedicated his life to the aid of slaves in Cartagena, Colombia. Carrying food and medicines, he sought to board every incoming slave ship to nurse the sick, comfort the distraught and terrified captives, and teach religion. He also visited the slaves on the local plantations to encourage them and to exhort their owners to treat them humanely. During these visits he was known to refuse the hospitality of the plantation owners and instead stay in the slave quarters. Despite strong official opposition, Peter persevered for 38 years and is thought to have baptized an estimated 300,000 slaves.

Pierre-Jean de Smet was a Belgian-born Jesuit missionary whose efforts to Christianize Native Americans and facilitate peace were ultimately met with heartbreak. His first mission, founded in what is now Iowa in 1838, served the Potawatomi, and he gained a reputation as a peacemaker after a successful negotiation between them and the Yankton Sioux. He then founded a mission near the Flathead homeland in Montana Territory, where he became their beloved “Black Robe.” He traveled to Europe several times to solicit funds to continue his work with them, and throughout his lifetime he traveled some 180,000 miles (290,000 km), including 16 crossings to Europe. As a friend of the Indians, de Smet was persuaded to go to Fort Laramie (in present-day Wyoming) to attend a government-sponsored peace council in 1851. He witnessed the treaty signed by the Plains chiefs and later saw its violation by the U.S. government and the subsequent Indian uprisings. Disillusioned, he became a U.S. Army chaplain but was horrified by their punitive dealings with native peoples, for whom he never stopped advocating. In 1858 he found his Flathead mission abandoned and his native friends dead or otherwise victimized by white exploitation. The aging missionary was once again enjoined by the federal government in 1868 to assist in negotiations with Sitting Bull, chief of the Hunkpapa Sioux. The chief’s emissaries agreed to the treaty, but de Smet did not live to see its violation, which culminated in Sitting Bull’s exile and the last of the nomadic Indians crowded onto reservations.

Although Pedro Arrupe originally studied medicine in Spain, he was moved by the poverty he witnessed in Madrid to join the Jesuits in 1927. The Spanish government dissolved the order in 1932, and Arrupe studied elsewhere in Europe and in the United States before landing as a missionary in Japan in 1938. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, he was arrested by the Japanese and accused of being a spy. He expected to be executed but was released after a month. He and eight other Jesuits were living in Hiroshima when the U.S. dropped the atomic bomb. They survived the blast, and Arrupe led one of the first rescue groups into the chaos. He used his medical skills to aid the dying and injured and treated about 200 people in the novitiate-turned-hospital; he was deeply impacted by the horror of the experience. In 1956 he was elected as the superior general of the Society of Jesus. Although sometimes maligned for his liberal views, he helped guide the order through the changes of the Second Vatican Council and refocused the Jesuits with a “preferential option for the poor.”

Ignacio Ellacuría was a Spanish-born El Salvadoran priest, missionary, and human rights activist. He joined the Jesuits in 1947 and studied in South America and Europe, obtaining a doctorate in philosophy in 1965. In El Salvador he stressed the need for service to the poor and was a major contributor to the development of liberation theology, which teaches that ministry should aid the political struggle of the poor against wealthy elites. For this he received many death threats, and he briefly left El Salvador after the assassination of a Jesuit priest in 1977 and again after the assassination of Archbishop Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez in 1980. He returned to continue his advocacy and cofounded the Revista Latinoamericana de Teología (“Latin American Review of Theology”) to further espouse his revolutionary theology. In 1985 he helped to mediate the release of the daughter of President José Napoleon Duarte, who had been kidnapped by leftist guerrillas, and later received the International Alfonso Comín Award in Barcelona for his human rights advocacy. The political implications for his religious teachings drew the ire of conservative forces in the country, and he and five other Jesuits were murdered by an elite army unit in 1989.